Analog to Digital Conversion

Components Required

• ATmega32 microcontroller
• AVR Programmer Board
• Crystal
• Capacitors
• LEDs
• +5V supply
• Breadboard
• Connecting Wires

Circuit Diagram

Description

The digital value of the analog input at PA0 will be shown in the 8 leds PC0 to PC7 from LSB to MSB.

Connections

• LEDs are connected to the Pins 0 to 7 of PORT C.
• The analog input is given to PIN A0 (ADC 0).
• A crystal is connected to the XTAL1 and XTAL2 pins to provide the clock pulse.
• Reset is connected to +5V.

Source Code

/*The following code will keep on converting the analog value applied at the pin PA0, convert it into digital value and store the most significant 8 bits in ADCH register and the lesser two bits in the ADCL register.

Since the lesser two values can be ignored the 8 bits present in the ADCH are only taken care of and the LEDs are glown according to the ADCH register*/

/* Go through the blog http://rickruling.blogspot.in/2013/10/adc-control-and-status-registers.html for more details on adc control and status registers*/

#include <avr/io.h>

#include <avr/interrupt.h>                     //For interrupt handling

#ifndef F_CPU

#define F_CPU 1000000UL               //frequency of the external crystal

#endif

int main(void)

{

DDRC = 0xFF;                     //All ports of port C as output

PORTB = 0x00;                            //Initially all pins as output low

//configure the ADC

ADCSRA |=1<<ADPS2;       //ADC Prescaler Select Bits (Division Factor is 16 for 100)

ADMUX |=1<<ADLAR;      //MSB in ADCH

ADMUX |=1<<REFS0;        // AREF pin

ADCSRA |=1<<ADIE;         //ADC Interrupt Enable

ADCSRA |=1<<ADEN;        //ADC Enable

sei();                                      //set global interrupt enable

ADCSRA |=1<<ADSC;        //ADC Start Conversion

    while(1)                                      //Infinite loop

          ;

}

ISR(ADC_vect)

{

PORTB = ADCH;                     //Result of conversion to PORTB

ADCSRA |=1<<ADSC;            //Restart the conversion

}

Thank you for reading.

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ADC Control and Status Registers

Features

• 10-bit Resolution
• 0.5 LSB Integral Non-linearity
• ±2 LSB Absolute Accuracy
• 13 μs - 260 μs Conversion Time
• Up to 15 kSPS at Maximum Resolution
• 8 Multiplexed Single Ended Input Channels
• 7 Differential Input Channels
• 2 Differential Input Channels with Optional Gain of 10x and 200x
• Optional Left adjustment for ADC Result Readout
• 0 - VCC ADC Input Voltage Range
• Selectable 2.56V ADC Reference Voltage
• Free Running or Single Conversion Mode
• ADC Start Conversion by Auto Triggering on Interrupt Sources
• Interrupt on ADC Conversion Complete
• Sleep Mode Noise Canceler

The ATmega32 features a 10-bit successive approximation ADC. The ADC is connected to an 8-channel Analog Multiplexer which allows 8 single-ended voltage inputs constructed from the pins of Port A.The device also supports 16 differential voltage input combinations. Two of the differential inputs(ADC1, ADC0 and ADC3, ADC2) are equipped with a programmable gain stage, providing amplification steps of 0 dB (1x), 20 dB (10x), or 46 dB (200x) on the differential input voltage before the A/D conversion. Seven differential analog input channels share a common negative terminal (ADC1), while any other ADC input can be selected as the positive input terminal. If 1x or 10x gain is used, 8-bit resolution can be expected. If 200x gain is used, 7-bit resolution can be expected.The ADC contains a Sample and Hold circuit which ensures that the input voltage to the ADC is held at a constant level during conversion.The ADC has a separate analog supply voltage pin, AVCC. AVCC must not differ more than ±0.3V from VCC. Internal reference voltages of nominally 2.56V or AVCC are provided On-chip. The voltage reference may be externally decoupled at the AREF pin by a capacitor for better noise performance.

ADC Multiplexer Selection Register - ADMUX

Bit 7:6 – REFS1:0: Reference Selection Bits

These bits select the voltage reference for the ADC, as shown in Table 83. If these bits are

changed during a conversion, the change will not go in effect until this conversion is complete

(ADIF in ADCSRA is set). The internal voltage reference options may not be used if an external

reference voltage is being applied to the AREF pin.

Bit 5 – ADLAR: ADC Left Adjust Result

The ADLAR bit affects the presentation of the ADC conversion result in the ADC Data Register.

Write one to ADLAR to left adjust the result. Otherwise, the result is right adjusted. Changing the

ADLAR bit will affect the ADC Data Register immediately, regardless of any ongoing conversions.

Bits 4:0 – MUX4:0: Analog Channel and Gain Selection Bits

The value of these bits selects which combination of analog inputs are connected to the ADC.

These bits also select the gain for the differential channels.  If these bits

are changed during a conversion, t

he change will not go in effect until this conversion is

complete (ADIF in ADCSRA is set).

ADC Control and  Status Regiter A - ADCSRA

Bit 7 – ADEN: ADC Enable

Writing this bit to one enables the ADC. By writing it to zero, the ADC is turned off. Turning the

ADC off while a conversion is in progress, will terminate this conversion.

Bit 6 – ADSC: ADC Start Conversion

In Single Conversion mode, write this bit to one to start each conversion. In Free Running Mode,

write this bit to one to start the first conversion. The first conversion after ADSC has been written

after the ADC has been enabled, or if ADSC is written at the same time as the ADC is enabled,

will take 25 ADC clock cycles instead of the normal 13. This first conversion performs initialization

of the ADC.

ADSC will read as one as long as a conversion is in progress. When the conversion is complete,

it returns to zero. Writing zero to this bit has no effect.

Bit 5 – ADATE: ADC Auto Trigger Enable

When this bit is written to one, Auto Triggering of the ADC is enabled. The ADC will start a 

conversion on 

a positive edge of the selected trigger signal. The trigger source is selected by setting

the ADC Trigger Select bits, ADTS in SFIOR.

Bit 4 – ADIF: ADC Interrupt Flag

This bit is set when an ADC conversion completes and the Data Registers are updated. The

ADC Conversion Complete Interrupt is executed if the ADIE bit and the I-bit in SREG are set.

ADIF is cleared by hardware when executing the corresponding interrupt handling vector. 

Alternatively, ADIF

is cleared by writing a logical one to the flag. Beware that if doing a Read-Modify-

Write on ADCSRA, a pending interrupt can be disabled. This also applies if the SBI and CBI

instructions are used.

Bit 3 – ADIE: ADC Interrupt Enable

When this bit is written to one and the I-bit in SREG is set, the ADC Conversion Complete Interrupt

is activated.

Bits 2:0 – ADPS2:0: ADC Prescaler Select Bits

These bits determine the division factor between the XTAL frequency and the input clock to the

ADC.

The ADC Data Registers - ADCL and ADCH

ADLAR = 0

ADLAR = 1

When an ADC conversion is complete, the result is found in these two registers. If differential
channels are used, the result is presented in two’s complement form.

When ADCL is read, the ADC Data Register is not updated until ADCH is read. Consequently, if

the result is left adjusted and no more than 8-bit precision is required, it is sufficient to read
ADCH. Otherwise, ADCL must be read first, then ADCH.
The ADLAR bit in ADMUX, and the MUXn bits in ADMUX affect the way the result is read from
the registers. If ADLAR is set, the result is left adjusted. If ADLAR is cleared (default), the result
is right adjusted.

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Interfacing LCD with the ATmega32

Components Required

• ATmega32 microcontroller
• AVR Programmer Board
• Crystal
• Capacitors
• 16x2 LCD
• +5V supply
• Breadboard
• Connecting Wires

Circuit Diagram

Description

DB0-DB7: Data Pins( use DB4-DB7 in 4 bit mode) 


RS(Register Select) : 1 - Data is sent , 0 - Command is sent . 


R/W(Read/Write) :1 - Read the LCD , 0 - Write to LCD. 


E(Enable): to enable an operation . first make low(0) to send data and then set the other two control lines and when they are configured, bring E high (1) and wait for the minimum amount of time required by the LCD and bring it low (0) again. 


VEE: Contrast Adjust Pin.



Connections 

• PC0 to PC7 are connected to the data pins D0 to D7 of the LCD.
• VDD and VEE are connected to the +5 volts directly.
• VEE can be connected to a potentiometer to adjust the contrast.
• VSS is connected to ground.
• RS, RW and E are connected to PD5, PD6 and PD7 respectively.
• A crystal is connected to XTAL1 and XTAL2 pins to provide the clock pulse.
• Reset is connected to +5V.

Source Code

/*

The following code will display the string defined in the main function.

 */ 

#include <avr/io.h>

#include <util/delay.h>

#ifndef F_CPU

#define F_CPU 1000000UL //Frequency of the external crystal

#endif

/*CWR - Command Word Register*/

#define ENABLE_LCD PORTD |= 0x80 //CWR state  to enable LCD

#define DISABLE_LCD PORTD &= ~0x80//CWR state to disable LCD

#define SET_LCD_DATA PORTD |= 0x20 //CWR state to send data

#define SET_LCD_CMD PORTD &= ~0x20 //CWR state to send command

void LCD_WriteCommand (unsigned char CMD);

void LCD_WriteData (unsigned char Data);

void LCD_DisplayString_F(char row, char column,char *string);

void LCD_Cursor(char row, char column);

void init_devices(void)

{

DDRC = 0xFF; //All pins of PORTC declared as Output

PORTC = 0x00;//Initially all pins declared as output low

DDRD = 0xF0;//Pins D4 to D7 declared as input,remaining as o/p

PORTD = 0x00;//All output pins as low

_delay_ms(100); // wait for 100ms

LCD_WriteCommand (0x38); // 8 data lines

LCD_WriteCommand (0x06); // cursor setting

LCD_WriteCommand (0x0f); // display ON

LCD_WriteCommand (0x01); // clear LCD memory

_delay_ms (10); // 10ms delay after clearing LCD

}

int main(void)

{

init_devices();

        //Text to be displayed in first row

LCD_DisplayString_F(1,1,"    ROBOWARES ");

        //Text to be displayed in second row

LCD_DisplayString_F(2,1,"rickruling.blogspot.in");

return 0;

} 

void LCD_WriteCommand (unsigned char Command)

{

SET_LCD_CMD; // Set LCD in command mode

PORTC = Command; // Load data to port

ENABLE_LCD; // Write data to LCD

_delay_ms(1);

DISABLE_LCD; // Disable LCD

_delay_ms(1); // wait for 1ms

}

void LCD_WriteData (unsigned char Data)

{

SET_LCD_DATA; // Set LCD in data mode

PORTC = Data; // Load data to port

ENABLE_LCD; // Write data to LCD

_delay_ms(1);

DISABLE_LCD; // Disable LCD

_delay_ms(1); // wait for 1ms

}

void LCD_DisplayString_F (char row, char column ,char *string)

{

         /*Break the string into characters and send them for the display*/

LCD_Cursor (row, column);

while (*string)//Loop till the string is not null

LCD_WriteData(*string++);

}

void LCD_Cursor (char row, char column)

{

switch (row)

{

case 1:     //Set the position in the first row

                 LCD_WriteCommand (0x80 + column - 1);

break;

case 2:     //Set the position in the second row

                 LCD_WriteCommand (0xC0 + column - 1);

break;

default: break;

}

}

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Interfacing Unipolar Stepper motor using ULN2803

Unipolar Stepper Motor

A unipolar stepper motor has one winding with center tap per phase. Each section of windings is switched on for each direction of magnetic field. Since in this arrangement a magnetic pole can be reversed without switching the direction of current, the commutation circuit can be made very simple (e.g., a single transistor) for each winding. Typically, given a phase, the center tap of each winding is made common: giving three leads per phase and six leads for a typical two phase motor. Often, these two phase commons are internally joined, so the motor has only five leads.

Components Required

• ATmega32 microcontroller
• AVR programmer board
• Crystal
• Capacitors
• Unipolar Stepper Motor
• ULN2803
• +5 V Supply
• Battery Equivalent to the voltage rating of the motor
• Breadboard
• Connecting wires 

Circuit Diagram

Description

• PC0 to PC3 are connected to the four inputs of the ULN2803 IC.
• Both the enable pins are separately connected to Vcc.
• A crystal is connected to the XTAL1 and XTAL2 pins to provide the clock pulse.
• Reset is connected to +5 volt.

Control Logic

To control a unipolar stepper, you use a Darlington Transistor Array. The stepping sequence is as shown below. Wires 5 and 6 are wired to the supply voltage.

Source Code

/*The following code will make the stepper motor to run continously*/

#include <avr/io.h>

#include<util/delay.h>

#ifndef F_CPU

#define F_CPU 1000000UL

#endif

int main()

 { 

         DDRC = 0xFF;                        //All pins of PORT C as output

PORTC = 0x00;                      //Initially all pins as output low

   while (1)                                         //infinite loop

   {

PORTC = 0x03;                       //0011

_delay_ms(100);

PORTC = 0x06;                      //0110

_delay_ms(100);

PORTC = 0x0C;                      //1100

_delay_ms(100);

PORTC = 0x09;                       //1001

_delay_ms(100);

   }

   return 0;

 }

Source Code for controlled Rotation

/* This code will make the stepper motor to run for a specific angle */ 

#include <avr/io.h>

#include <util/delay.h>

#ifndef F_CPU

#define F_CPU 1000000UL         // frequency of external crystal

#endif

int main()

 {

         /*Calculate x by the minimum step angle of your motor and required rotation angle*/

          int x=20;

          DDRC = 0xFF;                         //All pins of PORT C as output

 PORTC = 0x00;                        //Initially all pins as output low

   while (x)                                           //loop till x is not equal to zero

   {

PORTC = 0x03;                         //0011

_delay_ms(100);

PORTC = 0x06;                         //0110

_delay_ms(100);

PORTC = 0x0C;                        //1100

_delay_ms(100);

PORTC = 0x09;                         //1001

_delay_ms(100);

  x--;                                          //decrement x by 1

   }

   return 0;

 }

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Interfacing Bipolar Stepper motor using L293D

Bipolar Stepper motor

Bipolar motors have a single winding per phase. The current in a winding needs to be reversed in order to reverse a magnetic pole, so the driving circuit must be more complicated, typically with an H - bridge arrangement (however there are several off-the-shelf driver chips available to make this a simple affair). There are two leads per phase, none are common.Dithering the stepper signal at a higher frequency than the motor can respond to will reduce this "static friction" effect.
Because windings are better utilized, they are more powerful than a unipolar motor of the same weight. This is due to the physical space occupied by the windings. A unipolar motor has twice the amount of wire in the same space, but only half used at any point in time, hence is 50% efficient (or approximately 70% of the torque output available). Though a bipolar stepper motor is more complicated to drive, the abundance of driver chips means this is much less difficult to achieve.

Components Required

• ATmega32 microcontroller
• AVR programmer board
• Crystal
• Capacitors
• Bipolar Stepper Motor
• L293D
• +5 V Supply
• Battery Equivalent to the voltage rating of the motor
• Breadboard
• Connecting wires 

Circuit Diagram

For details on L293D IC go to 

http://rickruling.blogspot.in/2013/10/interfacing-dc-motor-with-atmega32.html

Description

• PB0 to PB3 are connected to the four inputs of the L293D IC.
• Both the enable pins are separately connected to Vcc.
• A crystal is connected to the XTAL1 and XTAL2 pins to provide the clock pulse.
• Reset is connected to +5 volt

Control Logic

To control the bipolar motor,apply voltage to each of the coils in a specific sequence. The sequence would go like this:

Source Code

/* This code will make the stepper motor to run continously */ 

#include <avr/io.h>

#include <util/delay.h>

#ifndef F_CPU

#define F_CPU 1000000UL         // frequency of external crystal

#endif

int main()

 { 

DDRB = 0xFF;                   //All pins of PORTB as output

PORTB = 0x00;                 //Initially all pins as output high

while(1)

{

PORTB = 0x01;          //0001

_delay_ms(10);

PORTB = 0x04;          //0100

_delay_ms(10);

PORTB = 0x02;          //0010

_delay_ms(10);

PORTB = 0x08;          //1000

_delay_ms(10);

}

return 0;

}

Source Code for controlled Rotation

/* This code will make the stepper motor to run for a specific angle */ 

#include <avr/io.h>

#include <util/delay.h>

#ifndef F_CPU

#define F_CPU 1000000UL         // frequency of external crystal

#endif

int main()

 {

         /*Calculate x by the minimum step angle of your motor and required rotation angle*/

         int x = 200;

         DDRB = 0xFF;                   //All pins of PORTB as output

 PORTB = 0x00;                 //Initially all pins as output high

while(x)                              //will loop till x is not equal to zero

{

PORTB = 0x01;          //0001

_delay_ms(10);

PORTB = 0x04;          //0100

_delay_ms(10);

PORTB = 0x02;          //0010

_delay_ms(10);

PORTB = 0x08;          //1000

_delay_ms(10);

                x--;                             //decrement x by 1

}

return 0;

}

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Interfacing D.C. Motor with ATmega32 using Mosfets

The main Drawback of interfacing D.C. motors using IC's like L293D is that the maximum current which it can give to the motor is limited to less than 1 Ampere. So, it is not suitable for running high torque motors which require higher amount of current. For that purpose we can create our own H - bridge circuit using mosfets.

Components Required

• ATmega32 microcontroller
• AVR programmer board
• Crystal
• Capacitors
• Motors
• Mosfets (2 N-channel and 2 P-channel)
• +5 V Supply
• Battery Equivalent to the voltage rating of the motor
• Breadboard
• Connecting wires 

Instead of  2 N-channel Mosfets and 2 - P channel Mosfets all the 4 Mosfets can be of same type i.e. all 4 can be N - type or all four can be of P-type, but you have to make corresponding changes in the source code.

Control Logic

• To make the motor move in the forward direction, +12 V and 0 V must be applied to the ends of the D.C. motor which will be controlled by controlling the Gates of the mosfet through the Source Code in the ATmega32.
• The dark lines show the flow of current in the circuit.

For forward rotation Gate of Q1 and Q3 are high and Q2 and Q4 are low.So Q1 will conduct because of positive current being a N - channel Mosfet and Q4 will conduct without a positive current being a P - channel Mosfet making the terminals +12 V and 0 V.

For forward rotation Gate of Q1 and Q3 are low and Q2 and Q4 are high.So Q2 will conduct because of positive current being a N - channel Mosfet and Q3 will conduct without a positive current being a P - channel Mosfet making the terminals +12 V and 0 V.

Circuit Diagram

Description

• PC0 to PC3 are connected to the four gates of the mosfet.
• A crystal is connected to XTAL1 and XTAL2 pins to provide clock pulse.
• Reset is connected to +5V.

Source Code

/* The following Source code will make the motor to run forward two seconds and then backward two seconds for infinite time*/

#include <avr/io.h>

#include <util/delay.h>

#define F_CPU 1000000UL        //Frequency of the external crystal

int main()

 { 

         DDRC = 0xFF;                   // PORTC as output port

PORTC = 0x00;                  // Initially all pins of PORTC as output low

 

   while (1)                                     // Infinte Loop

   {

  PORTC = 0b00000101;     //forward rotation 

  _delay_ms(2000);

  PORTC = 0b00001010;     //backward rotation

  _delay_ms(2000);

   }

   return 0;

 }

Circuit Diagram (if reverse rotation is not required)

Description

• PC0 to PC1 are connected to the two gates of the mosfet.
• A crystal is connected to XTAL1 and XTAL2 pins to provide clock pulse.
• Reset is connected to +5V.

Source Code for Normal Run of D.C. Motor

#include <avr/io.h>

int main()

 { 

         DDRC = 0xFF;                              // PORTC as output port

   PORTC = 0b00000001;              //forward rotation 

            while (1);                                     // Infinte Loop

   return 0;

 }

Source code for Speed Control Using PWM

/***

*In order to provide PWM the output of the gates must be fluctuating

*In the on time of the duty cycle the required mosfets must be on

* In the off time of the duty cycle all the mostets must be of which is done by applying logic high to P - mosfets and logic low to N - mosfets

***/

#include <avr/io.h>

#include <util/delay.h>

#define F_CPU 1000000UL        //Frequency of the external crystal

int main()

 { 

         DDRC = 0xFF;                   // PORTC as output port

PORTC = 0x00;                  // Initially all pins of PORTC as output low

 

   while (1)

   {

  PORTC = 0b00000001;    //on time

  _delay_ms(1);

  PORTC = 0b00000010;   //off time

  _delay_ms(1);

   }

   return 0;

 }

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Thank You for Reading

Speed Control of DC Motor using PWM

Pulse-width modulation is an effective method for adjusting the speed and the amount of power delivered to an electrical load.

Components Required

ATmega32 microcontroller

AVR Programmer Board

Crystal

Capacitors

Motors

L293D IC

+5V supply

Battery equivalent to voltage rating of motor 

Breadboard

Connecting Wires

To know about the L293D motor controller go through the previous blog on Interfacing D.C. Motor with ATmega32 using L293D.

http://rickruling.blogspot.in/2013/10/interfacing-dc-motor-with-atmega32.html

Circuit Diagram

Description

• PC0 and PC3 are connected to Enable 1 and Enable 2 respectively.
• PC1,PC2,PC4 and PC5 are connected to Input 1-4.
• OUT1 and OUT2 are connected to the terminals of first motor and OUT3 and OUT4 are connected to the terminals of the second motor.
• A crystal is connected to XTAL1 and XTAL2 pins to provide the clock pulse.
• Reset is connected to +5V.

Source Code

/*The following code will make the motor to run at 50% duty cycle*/

#include <avr/io.h>

#include <util/delay.h>

#define F_CPU 1000000UL

int main()

 { 

DDRC = 0xFF;                                       //All pins of PORT C as output 

PORTC = 0x00;                                     //Initially all pins at low output

PORTC|=(1<<PC1)|(1<<PC4);            //PORT C 1 and 4 as high

PORTC&=~((1<<PC2)|(1<<PC5));     //PORT C 2 and 5 as low
  /*In order to make the motor to rotate in opposite direction interchange the terminals of the motors (PINC1 and PINC2 for motor 1 and PINC4 and PINC5 for motor 2)*/

   while (1)                                                 //Infinite Loop

   {

      /*ON TIME*/

  PORTC|=(1<<PC0)|(1<<PC3);

      _delay_us(5);

      /*OFF TIME*/

      PORTC&=~((1<<PC0)|(1<<PC3));

      _delay_us(5);

           

   }

   return 0;

}

duty cycle = (on_time)/(on_time+off_time)

duty cycle = 5/10 = 0.5

To increase the duty cycle increase the delay of on_time and to decrease the duty cycle increase the delay of off_time.

Practical Limitations of Pulse Width Modulation Motor Control

Pulse-width modulation is difficult below 25% for motors because they don’t gain the same rotational inertia in comparison to the static resistances of the grease, gearing, and gaps between commutators. A weird aspect of PWM on motors is that it can create audible whining. Basically, if you select a PWM frequency in a human-audible range, the mechanical device will likely oscillate audibly. Increasing the frequency above 20 kHz may silence the motor whining. But, some motors, transistors, or motor driver chips are unable to switch on and off that quickly.

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Thank You for Reading

Interfacing D.C. Motor with ATmega32 using L293D

Components Required

• ATmega32 microcontroller
• AVR Programmer Board
• Crystal
• Capacitors
• Motors
• L293D IC
• +5V supply
• Battery equivalent to voltage rating of motor 
• Breadboard
• Connecting Wires

Motor Controller

L293D - Dual D.C. Motor Controller

• Enable-1 controls the output of output1 and output2.
• Enable-2 controls the output of output3 and output4.
• Vss is connected to +5V.
• Vs is connected to a voltage equal to the voltage rating of the motor.
• Enable 1-2 and Input 1-4 comes from the microcontroller.
• If speed control using PWM is not needed, the Enable Pins can be directly connected to +5V.
• All 4 grounds are shorted to a common ground.
• Output 1-4 goes to the motor.

Circuit Diagram

Description

• PC0 and PC3 are connected to Enable 1 and Enable 2 respectively.
• PC1,PC2,PC4 and PC5 are connected to Input 1-4.
• OUT1 and OUT2 are connected to the terminals of first motor and OUT3 and OUT4 are connected to the terminals of the second motor.
• A crystal is connected to XTAL1 and XTAL2 pins to provide the clock pulse.
• Reset is connected to +5V.

Source Code

/*The following code will make the motor to run forward for 2 seconds 

and then backward for 2 seconds for infinite time*/

#include <avr/io.h>

#include <util/delay.h>

#define F_CPU 1000000UL

int main()

 { 

DDRC = 0xFF;                                  // PORTC as output port

PORTC = 0x00;                                //Initially all pins as output low

PORTC|=(1<<PC0)|(1<<PC3);        //C0 and C3 are connected to enable

         while (1)                                            // Infinite Loop

         {

                   /*Forward Motion*/

  PORTC|=(1<<PC1)|(1<<PC4);              //#1

           PORTC&=~((1<<PC2)|(1<<PC5));       //#2

                   _delay_ms(2000);                                    //#3

                  /*Backward Motion*/

      PORTC&=~((1<<PC1)|(1<<PC4));       //#4

           PORTC|=(1<<PC2)|(1<<PC5);              //#5

            _delay_ms(2000);                                   //#6

         }

         return 0;

  }

   # 1 .  PORTC|=(1<<PC1)|(1<<PC4);  

            1<<PC1 will generate a character 00000010 and 1<<PC4 will genarate a character 00010000.

            Taking OR of this values will generate 00010010. Now OR of this value and the initial condition of               PORTC will make the Bits 1 and 4 as high independent of all other pins of  PORTC.

    # 2 .  PORTC&=~((1<<PC2)|(1<<PC5));  

            1<<PC2 will generate a character 00000100 and 1<<PC5 will genarate a character 00100000.

            Taking OR of this values will generate 00100100 and NOT of this value will generate 11011011.                 Now AND of this value and the initial condition of PORTC will make the Bits 2 and 5 as low                       independent of all other pins of  PORTC.

    # 3. _delay_ms(2000);  

            A delay of 2 seconds after which the motor will change its direction.

    # 4 . PORTC&=~((1<<PC1)|(1<<PC4));  

            1<<PC1 will generate a character 00000010 and 1<<PC4 will genarate a character 00010000.

            Taking OR of this values will generate 00010010 and NOT of this value will generate 11101101.                 Now AND of this value and the initial condition of PORTC will make the Bits 1 and 4 as low                       independent of all other pins of  PORTC.

    # 5 .  PORTC|=(1<<PC2)|(1<<PC5);  

            1<<PC2 will generate a character 00000100 and 1<<PC5 will genarate a character 00100000.

            Taking OR of this values will generate 00100100. Now OR of this value and the initial condition of               PORTC will make the Bits 2 and 5 as high independent of all other pins of  PORTC.

    # 6. _delay_ms(2000);  

            A delay of 2 seconds after which the motor will change its direction.

Source Code for Normal Run of DC motor

#include <avr/io.h>

#define F_CPU 1000000UL

int main()

 { 

DDRC = 0xFF;

PORTC = 0x00;

PORTC|=(1<<PC0)|(1<<PC3);               //C0 and C3 are connected to enable

         PORTC|=(1<<PC1)|(1<<PC4);               //C1 and C4 as output high

PORTC&=~((1<<PC2)|(1<<PC5));        //C2 and C5 as output low

         while(1)                                                    // Infinite Loop

           ;

   return 0;

}

ThankYou for Reading.

                     

ATmega32 LED blinking Experiment

The first and simplest project for any microcontroller is LED Blinking.

Circuit Diagram

Components Required

• ATmega32 microcontroller
• Programmer Board
• LEDs
• Crystal - less than 16 MHz.
• Capacitors - 2 
• +5 V supply
• Breadboard
• Connecting Wires

Optional

• Resistors - 330 Ohms to be connected in series with the LEDs(not shown in the circuit diagram) 

Description

• Here, all pins of PORT B are declared as output ports as all the LEDs are connected to the pins of PORTB.
• A crystal is connected to the XTAL1 and XTAL2 pins to provide the clock pulse.
• Reset is connected to +5V.

Source Code

#include <avr/io.h> 

#include <util/delay.h> 

#define F_CPU 1000000UL    // Defines the frequency of external crystal

    

int main()

 { 

          /* The Data direction register of all Pins of Port B is Set as Output*/

         DDRB = 0xFF;                

PORTB = 0x00;               // Initially all pins of Port B are set as Output Low

   while (1)                               // Infinite Loop

   {

  PORTB = 0b11111110;   // all LEDs will glow except the first LED 

  _delay_ms(500);            // delay of 500 milliseconds 

  PORTB = 0b11111101;   // all LEDs will glow except the second LED 

  _delay_ms(500);            // delay of 500 milliseconds 

  PORTB = 0b11111011;   // all LEDs will glow except the third LED 

  _delay_ms(500);            // delay of 500 milliseconds 

  PORTB = 0b11110111;   // all LEDs will glow except the fourth LED 

  _delay_ms(500);            // delay of 500 milliseconds 

  PORTB = 0b11101111;   // all LEDs will glow except the fifth LED 

  _delay_ms(500);            // delay of 500 milliseconds 

  PORTB = 0b11011111;   // all LEDs will glow except the sixth LED 

  _delay_ms(500);            // delay of 500 milliseconds 

  PORTB = 0b10111111;   // all LEDs will glow except the seventh LED 

  _delay_ms(500);            // delay of 500 milliseconds 

  PORTB = 0b01111111;   // all LEDs will glow except the eight LED 

  _delay_ms(500);            // delay of 500 milliseconds 

   }

   return 0;

 }

Thankyou for Reading